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        Persons using assistive technology might not be able to fully access information in this file. For assistance, please send e-mail to: mmwrq@cdc.gov. Type 508 Accommodation and the title of the report in the subject line of e-mail.

        Trends in the Prevalence of Excess Dietary Sodium Intake — United States, 2003–2010

        Excess sodium intake can lead to hypertension, the primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease, which is the leading cause of U.S. deaths (1). Monitoring the prevalence of excess sodium intake is essential to provide the evidence for public health interventions and to track reductions in sodium intake, yet few reports exist. Reducing population sodium intake is a national priority, and monitoring the amount of sodium consumed adjusted for energy intake (sodium density or sodium in milligrams divided by calories) has been recommended because a higher sodium intake is generally accompanied by a higher calorie intake from food (2). To describe the most recent estimates and trends in excess sodium intake, CDC analyzed 2003–2010 data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) of 34,916 participants aged ≥1 year. During 2007–2010, the prevalence of excess sodium intake, defined as intake above the Institute of Medicine tolerable upper intake levels (1,500 mg/day at ages 1–3 years; 1,900 mg at 4–8 years; 2,200 mg at 9–13 years; and 2,300 mg at ≥14 years) (3), ranged by age group from 79.1% to 95.4%. Small declines in the prevalence of excess sodium intake occurred during 2003–2010 in children aged 1–13 years, but not in adolescents or adults. Mean sodium intake declined slightly among persons aged ≥1 year, whereas sodium density did not. Despite slight declines in some groups, the majority of the U.S. population aged ≥1 year consumes excess sodium.

        NHANES is a nationally representative, multistage survey of the noninstitutionalized U.S. civilian population. Certain populations are oversampled to allow for reliable estimates within subgroups.* During NHANES 2003–2010, a total of 49,731 participants aged ≥1 year (including those currently breastfed) were screened. Participants who completed an initial in-person dietary recall in a mobile examination center were asked to complete a second 24-hour dietary recall by telephone 3–10 days later. After those with missing or incomplete dietary recall data were excluded, the final analytic sample was 34,916, for a response rate of 70.3% among those screened. The 24-hour dietary recall was collected by trained interviewers using the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) automated multiple-pass method by proxy for those aged 1–5 years, by participants with proxy assistance for those aged 6–11 years, and directly by participants aged ≥12 years. The nutrient values of sodium were assigned to foods and beverages using the USDA Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies corresponding with each NHANES 2-year cycle.§ Sodium intake for each respondent on each recall day was estimated by summing the sodium consumed from each food and beverage during the previous 24 hours (excluding supplements, antacids, and salt added at the table). To evaluate trends, from 2003–2010, estimates of sodium in foods did not include salt adjustments for participants whose household used salt in cooking occasionally or less often. For children consuming human milk, the sodium content was estimated and added to sodium from other foods and beverages.**

        Up to two 24-hour dietary recalls were used. Data were analyzed with statistical software that fits a measurement error model.†† All estimates were based on usual sodium intake, adjusting for within person, day-to-day variability. After adjusting for the day of the week of the recall, age (years), sex, and race/ethnicity, estimates were calculated for mean usual sodium intake, sodium density, and prevalence of excess sodium intake. Jackknife replicate weights based on survey weights were used to estimate standard errors and account for the complex survey design. The differences in the prevalence of excess sodium intake were examined by z test. Using linear regression models with the usual mean intake for each 2-year phase weighted by the inverse of the variance, trends in sodium intake and sodium intake density were examined using a z test. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. No adjustment was made for multiple testing.

        During 2007–2010, the prevalence of excess usual sodium intake ranged from 79.1% for U.S. children aged 1–3 years to 95.4% for U.S. adults aged 19–50 years (Table 1). A statistically significant 2.7–4.9 percentage point decline in excess usual sodium intake occurred from 2003–2006 to 2007–2010 among children aged 1–3, 4–8, and 9–13 years, but not among adolescents or adults. Among children aged 4–8 years, statistically significant declines occurred across all sex and race/ethnicity subgroups.

        Mean usual sodium intake among the U.S. population aged ≥1 year decreased slightly from 2003–2004 to 2009–2010 (3,518 mg versus 3,424 mg; p-value for trend = 0.037). The U.S. population aged ≥1 year consumed, on average, approximately 1,700 mg sodium per 1,000 kcal during 2009–2010, with no significant trend over time compared with previous investigation years (Table 2). Across age groups, mean usual sodium density did not change significantly over time, with the exception of youths aged 14–18 years, for whom sodium density increased slightly. Within age groups, mean usual sodium density slightly increased among males aged 4–8 years and females aged 14–18 years and slightly declined among non-Hispanic whites aged ≥51 years.

        Reported by

        Alicia Carriquiry, PhD, Iowa State Univ. Alanna J. Moshfegh, MS, Lois C. Steinfeldt, MPH, Food Surveys Research Group, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Svc, US Dept of Agriculture. Mary E. Cogswell, DrPH, Fleetwood Loustalot, PhD, Zefeng Zhang, MD, PhD, Quanhe Yang, PhD, Div for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; Niu Tian, MD, PhD, EIS Officer, CDC. Corresponding contributor: Niu Tian, vii9@cdc.gov, 770-488-5679.

        Editorial Note

        The findings in this report indicate that during 2007–2010, approximately eight out of 10 U.S. children aged 1–3 years and nine out of 10 U.S. residents aged ≥4 years were at potential risk for high blood pressure attributable to excess sodium intake. Although a slight decrease in the prevalence of excess usual sodium intake occurred after 2003–2006 among children aged 1–13 years, excess intake did not decrease among adolescents and adults. During 2003–2010, a slight decrease occurred in average population sodium intake, but not sodium intake per calorie. Although some variation in trends occurred among population subgroups in usual mean sodium intake and sodium density, the lack of a change in sodium consumed per calorie (approximately 1,700 mg/1,000 kcal) suggests that the small reduction in usual sodium intake might be related to declines in calorie consumption, rather than to changes in sodium density of foods.

        Previous reports (4,5) included data on trends in U.S. sodium intake from the 1970s to 2003. The findings in this report update these trends, and include new data on usual excess sodium intake and sodium density. The slight declines in excess usual sodium intake among children aged 1–13 years might be partially explained by declines in energy intake among children over the same period.§§ Given an average sodium consumption of 1,700 mg/1,000 kcal/day, reducing 100 calories per day could result in a mean reduction of 170 mg of sodium per day, slightly shifting the distribution of sodium intake and lowering the percentage of those with excess intake. Among adults, the pattern of trends in sodium intake also might be explained by changes in energy intake over time. Although average energy intake declined slightly during 1999–2010 among adults aged 20–39 years, it did not change among older adults (6).

        The findings in this report are subject to at least four limitations. First, NHANES data exclude military personnel and institutionalized populations such as persons who reside in long-term care or correctional facilities. Second, the response rate was 70.3%; lower response rates can result in response bias. Third, the 24-hour dietary recall underestimates mean caloric intake by an estimated 11% and sodium intake by 9%, and sodium intake excluded use of salt at the table, which accounts for nearly 5% of U.S. sodium intake (7). Finally, no adjustments for multiple comparisons were performed to determine whether differences between any pair of estimates were statistically significant.

        Despite slight declines in sodium intake among some population groups, most U.S. residents aged ≥1 year consume excess sodium. Given consumption of approximately 1,700 mg of sodium per 1,000 kilocalories/day, a mean energy reduction of approximately 600 kcal/day would be required to reduce mean sodium intake by approximately 1,000 mg, to approximately 2,300 mg/day. A sodium density target of 1,000 mg/1,000 kcal was recently proposed to lower sodium intake to <2,300 mg per day (2). Given that average energy and sodium intakes have changed little over time, coupling efforts to reduce obesity with efforts to reduce the sodium content per calorie in foods might accelerate progress. Considering that 8.1% of sodium intake among U.S. children comes from school meals (8), new school food guidelines might promote progress toward achieving goals for reducing sodium consumption among children who obtain meals at school.¶¶ Other ongoing public health efforts include working with industry to gradually reduce sodium in commercially processed packaged and restaurant foods.*** Even a 400 mg reduction in mean U.S. sodium intake might save billions of health-care dollars (9).

        References

        1. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2012;125:e2–220.
        2. Guenther PM, Lyon JM, Appel LJ. Modeling dietary patterns to assess sodium recommendations for nutrient adequacy. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;97:842–7.
        3. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intake for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2005. Available at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/DRI_Water/water_full_report.pdf.
        4. Bernstein AM, Willett WC. Trends in 24-h urinary sodium excretion in the United States, 1957–2003: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:1172–80.
        5. Briefel RR, Johnson CL. Secular trends in dietary intake in the United States. Annu Rev Nutr 2004;24:401–31.
        6. Ford ES, Dietz WH. Trends in energy intake among adults in the United States: findings from NHANES. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;97:848–53.
        7. Rhodes DG, Murayi T, Clemens JC, et al. The USDA automated multiple-pass method accurately assesses population sodium intakes. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;97:958–64.
        8. CDC. Vital signs: food categories contributing the most to sodium consumption—United States, 2007–2008. MMWR 2012;61:92–8.
        9. Coxson PG, Cook NR, Joffres M, et al. Mortality benefits from US population-wide reduction in sodium consumption: projections from 3 modeling approaches. Hypertension 2013;61:564–70.

        * Additional information available at http://www.cy118119.com/nchs/nhanes.htm.

        Additional information available at http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/fsrg.

        § Additional information available at http://www.ars.usda.gov/services/docs.htm?docid=12089.

        Additional information available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23567248.

        ** The volume of human milk was assumed to be 600 mL per day for children aged 7–11 months fed only human milk; 600 mL per day minus the volume of infant formula plus other milk for other children aged 7–11 months, 89 mL per human milk feeding for children aged 12–18 months, and 59 mL per feeding for children aged 19–36 months. Sodium, potassium, and energy concentrations in human milk were assumed to be 177 mg/L, 531 mg/L, and 75 kcal/L, respectively, based on the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference values for mature, human milk, 33.8 fluid ounces per liter.

        †† PC-SIDE (Software for Intake Distribution Estimation for the Windows operating system), Center for Agriculture and Rural Development, Iowa State University. Additional information available at http://www.side.stat.iastate.edu/pc-side.php and http://www.card.iastate.edu/publications/synopsis.aspx?id=168.

        §§ Additional information available at http://www.cy118119.com/nchs/data/databriefs/db113.htm.

        ¶¶ Additional information available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-01-26/html/2012-1010.htm.

        *** Additional information available at http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1020-49892012001000009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.


        What is already known on this topic?

        Excess sodium intake can lead to hypertension and consequent cardiovascular disease. Sodium consumption in the United States is well above national recommendations. Reports of national data on sodium consumption trends are limited.

        What is added by this report?

        As of 2010, >90% of U.S. adolescents and adults consume sodium in excess of recommendations, and little has changed since 2003. U.S. children have seen a slight decline in excess sodium consumption during the same period, but 80%–90% of children continue to consume excess sodium. From 2003 to 2010, a slight decrease occurred in average sodium intake, but not sodium intake per calorie.

        What are the implications for public health practice?

        Small reductions in sodium intake might be related to declines in average energy consumption, rather than changes in the amount of sodium per calorie in foods consumed. Given that average energy and sodium intakes have changed little over time, coupling efforts to reduce obesity with efforts to reduce the sodium content per calorie in foods might accelerate reductions in sodium consumed.


        TABLE 1. Proportion of usual sodium intake exceeding the Institute of Medicine tolerable upper intake level,* by age group, sex, and race/ethnicity— National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), United States, 2003–2010

        Characteristic

        Upper limit

        (mg/day)

        2003–2006

        2007–2010

        Percentage point change

        p-value

        No.§

        Proportion
        over upper intake level
        (%)

        Standard
        error

        No.

        Proportion
        over upper intake level
        (%)

        Standard
        error

        Age 1–3 yrs

        1,500

        1,560

        (84.0)

        1.4

        1,558

        (79.1)

        1.9

        (-4.9)

        0.019

        Male

        784

        (84.1)

        2.0

        809

        (79.4)

        2.7

        (-4.7)

        0.081

        Female

        776

        (84.3)

        2.2

        749

        (79.7)

        2.2

        (-4.6)

        0.071

        White, non-Hispanic

        470

        (84.0)

        2.9

        525

        (80.3)

        3.7

        (-3.7)

        0.215

        Black, non-Hispanic

        407

        (87.6)

        3.3

        297

        (86.3)

        3.0

        (-1.3)

        0.385

        Mexican-American

        519

        (75.7)

        3.2

        437

        (71.2)

        4.9

        (-4.5)

        0.222

        Age 4–8 yrs

        1,900

        1,682

        (97.3)

        0.4

        1,890

        (92.6)

        0.8

        (-4.6)

        <0.001

        Male

        815

        (97.7)

        0.5

        995

        (94.3)

        1.0

        (-3.4)

        0.008

        Female

        867

        (96.9)

        0.8

        895

        (90.5)

        1.4

        (-6.3)

        <0.001

        White, non-Hispanic

        479

        (96.3)

        0.8

        621

        (90.3)

        1.5

        (-5.9)

        <0.001

        Black, non-Hispanic

        519

        (98.9)

        0.7

        402

        (95.6)

        1.3

        (-3.3)

        0.012

        Mexican-American

        517

        (94.2)

        1.4

        529

        (89.3)

        2.6

        (-4.9)

        0.045

        Age 9–13 yrs

        2,200

        2,040

        (96.9)

        0.7

        1,717

        (94.2)

        0.9

        (-2.7)

        0.008

        Male

        999

        —**

        —**

        850

        (96.8)

        0.7

        ††

        ††

        Female

        1,041

        (91.4)

        1.6

        867

        (90.1)

        1.7

        (-1.4)

        0.279

        White, non-Hispanic

        516

        (97.0)

        0.8

        544

        —**

        —**

        ††

        ††

        Black, non-Hispanic

        691

        —**

        —**

        406

        —**

        —**

        ††

        ††

        Mexican-American

        669

        (95.4)

        1.3

        456

        (84.8)

        3.1

        (-10.5)

        0.001

        Age 14–18 yrs

        2,300

        2,673

        (94.2)

        1.0

        1,552

        (92.3)

        1.5

        (-1.9)

        0.145

        Male

        1,353

        (97.8)

        0.7

        818

        —**

        —**

        ††

        ††

        Female

        1,320

        (84.2)

        2.3

        734

        (80.2)

        3.1

        (-4.0)

        0.938

        White, non-Hispanic

        731

        (95.7)

        1.0

        517

        (93.4)

        1.7

        (-2.3)

        0.123

        Black, non-Hispanic

        938

        (90.7)

        1.8

        369

        —**

        —**

        ††

        ††

        Mexican-American

        820

        (94.3)

        1.3

        385

        (90.0)

        2.2

        (-4.3)

        0.047

        Age 19–50 yrs

        2,300

        5,428

        (95.9)

        0.4

        6,086

        (95.4)

        0.5

        (-0.5)

        0.200

        Male

        2,528

        (99.2)

        0.1

        2,936

        (99.1)

        0.2

        (-0.1)

        0.242

        Female

        2,900

        (86.6)

        1.2

        3,150

        (84.8)

        1.4

        (-1.9)

        0.152

        White, non-Hispanic

        2,384

        (97.1)

        0.4

        2,598

        (96.4)

        0.6

        (-0.7)

        0.170

        Black, non-Hispanic

        1,310

        (92.5)

        1.4

        1,190

        (93.4)

        0.8

        (0.9)

        0.709

        Mexican-American

        1,276

        (93.5)

        1.0

        1,270

        (90.8)

        1.3

        (-2.8)

        0.050

        Age ≥51 yrs

        2,300

        4,062

        (88.9)

        1.0

        4,668

        (90.1)

        0.8

        (1.2)

        0.839

        Male

        2,028

        (95.9)

        0.6

        2,341

        (96.5)

        0.5

        (0.6)

        0.782

        Female

        2,034

        (77.1)

        1.4

        2,327

        (77.9)

        1.4

        (0.9)

        0.668

        White, non-Hispanic

        2,416

        (91.4)

        0.9

        2,273

        (92.8)

        0.8

        (1.4)

        0.876

        Black, non-Hispanic

        762

        (79.0)

        2.4

        975

        (82.2)

        2.0

        (3.2)

        0.842

        Mexican-American

        674

        (67.7)

        3.9

        757

        (76.3)

        3.1

        (8.6)

        0.959

        * The upper intake level is the age-specific, tolerable upper intake level, as defined by the Institute of Medicine (2005). The proportion of usual sodium intake over the upper intake level was estimated using PC-SIDE software (Department of Statistics, Iowa State University) with jackknife replicate weights and adjusted for the day of the week of the recall, age (years), sex, and race/ethnicity. Persons missing data on incomplete first-day recall were excluded from the analysis.

        Other racial/ethnic groups were not included. The sum of the sample size of non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and Mexican-American is not equal to the total sample size.

        § Sample sizes unweighted.

        p<0.05, when trends of proportion of usual sodium intake over the upper intake level were examined using the z test.

        ** Data statistically unreliable; relative standard error ≥0.3.

        †† Not applicable.


        TABLE 2. Mean usual sodium density* (mg/1,000 kcal), by age group, sex, and race/ethnicity — National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), United States, 2003–2010

        Characteristic

        2003–2004

        2005–2006

        2007–2008

        2009–2010

        Changes
        per
        cycle

        p-value
        for
        trend

        No.§

        Mean

        Standard error

        No.

        Mean

        Standard error

        No.

        Mean

        Standard error

        No.

        Mean

        Standard error

        Overall

        8,579

        1,661

        10

        8,866

        1,693

        14

        8,473

        1,697

        12

        8,998

        1,689

        10

        9

        0.248

        Male

        4,192

        1,653

        9

        4,315

        1,666

        14

        4,266

        1,695

        15

        4,483

        1,690

        14

        14

        0.054

        Female

        4,387

        1,669

        17

        4,551

        1,719

        17

        4,207

        1,698

        16

        4,515

        1,688

        13

        2

        0.879

        White, non-Hispanic

        3,541

        1,679

        10

        3,455

        1,710

        14

        3,367

        1,698

        11

        3,711

        1,692

        10

        4

        0.560

        Black, non-Hispanic

        2,284

        1,617

        26

        2,343

        1,637

        14

        1,939

        1,664

        21

        1,700

        1,632

        17

        5

        0.652

        Mexican-American

        2,123

        1,548

        15

        2,352

        1,569

        16

        1,773

        1,582

        16

        2,061

        1,581

        28

        13

        0.063

        Age 1–3 yrs

        740

        1,431

        21

        820

        1,458

        34

        765

        1,429

        23

        793

        1,427

        15

        -3

        0.589

        Male

        363

        1,404

        32

        421

        1,472

        46

        399

        1,392

        34

        410

        1,419

        25

        0

        0.993

        Female

        377

        1,457

        31

        399

        1,433

        20

        366

        1,463

        27

        383

        1,433

        22

        -3

        0.727

        White, non-Hispanic

        226

        1,435

        25

        244

        1,472

        36

        246

        1,399

        36

        279

        1,434

        34

        -5

        0.729

        Black, non-Hispanic

        218

        1,500

        30

        189

        1,464

        34

        163

        1,497

        29

        134

        1,479

        75

        -3

        0.840

        Mexican-American

        228

        1,364

        49

        291

        1,343

        31

        207

        1,368

        46

        230

        1,360

        47

        3

        0.695

        Age 4–8 yrs

        783

        1,541

        19

        899

        1,550

        19

        934

        1,530

        20

        956

        1,556

        23

        2

        0.822

        Male

        382

        1,491

        20

        433

        1,531

        21

        500

        1,544

        31

        495

        1,573

        41

        27

        0.028**

        Female

        401

        1,594

        29

        466

        1,567

        28

        434

        1,518

        24

        461

        1,541

        21

        -18

        0.252

        White, non-Hispanic

        220

        1,545

        31

        259

        1,522

        28

        300

        1,480

        26

        321

        1,546

        37

        -7

        0.747

        Black, non-Hispanic

        261

        1,574

        42

        258

        1,614

        40

        230

        1,620

        32

        172

        1,568

        32

        -3

        0.840

        Mexican-American

        224

        1,434

        34

        293

        1,491

        23

        250

        1,524

        31

        279

        1,487

        31

        3

        0.695

        Age 9–13 yrs

        995

        1,601

        23

        1,045

        1,633

        16

        832

        1,637

        32

        885

        1,636

        19

        9

        0.292

        Male

        482

        1,580

        35

        517

        1,640

        29

        411

        1,647

        40

        439

        1,665

        30

        25

        0.102

        Female

        513

        1,622

        34

        528

        1,627

        39

        421

        1,625

        45

        446

        1,613

        27

        -3

        0.269

        White, non-Hispanic

        266

        1,568

        28

        250

        1,648

        25

        252

        1,638

        45

        292

        1,635

        23

        17

        0.370

        Black, non-Hispanic

        350

        1,750

        58

        341

        1,685

        39

        224

        1,722

        48

        182

        1,599

        30

        -44

        0.140

        Mexican-American

        301

        1,520

        45

        368

        1,613

        27

        206

        1,514

        64

        250

        1,598

        38

        12

        0.700

        Age 14–18 yrs

        1,343

        1,567

        26

        1,330

        1,636

        39

        738

        1,683

        36

        814

        1,689

        30

        43

        0.036**

        Male

        697

        1,594

        33

        656

        1,638

        50

        385

        1,721

        38

        433

        1,678

        37

        35

        0.143

        Female

        646

        1,535

        31

        674

        1,625

        36

        353

        1,644

        36

        381

        1,698

        37

        54

        0.036**

        White, non-Hispanic

        360

        1,586

        33

        371

        1,639

        48

        247

        1,717

        47

        270

        1,675

        38

        34

        0.137

        Black, non-Hispanic

        488

        1,542

        42

        450

        1,531

        27

        195

        1,594

        50

        174

        1,609

        25

        27

        0.137

        Mexican-American

        411

        1,551

        31

        409

        1,607

        28

        165

        1,656

        70

        220

        1,631

        58

        36

        0.104

        Age 19–50 yrs

        2,583

        1,657

        17

        2,845

        1,717

        20

        2,865

        1,718

        14

        3221

        1,708

        11

        12

        0.345

        Male

        1,226

        1,651

        21

        1,302

        1,687

        22

        1,404

        1,712

        15

        1532

        1,703

        20

        18

        0.163

        Female

        1,357

        1,660

        25

        1,543

        1,742

        29

        1,461

        1,723

        22

        1689

        1,712

        17

        10

        0.527

        White, non-Hispanic

        1,189

        1,663

        21

        1,195

        1,729

        25

        1,188

        1,720

        18

        1410

        1,709

        15

        11

        0.432

        Black, non-Hispanic

        633

        1,603

        50

        677

        1,641

        30

        623

        1,664

        31

        567

        1,636

        22

        5

        0.697

        Mexican-American

        560

        1,578

        17

        716

        1,598

        25

        598

        1,602

        15

        672

        1,601

        30

        9

        0.113

        Age ≥51 yrs

        2,135

        1,778

        17

        1,927

        1,759

        16

        2,339

        1,768

        23

        2,329

        1,748

        20

        -8

        0.159

        Male

        1,042

        1,784

        25

        986

        1,712

        24

        1,167

        1,768

        25

        1,174

        1,760

        36

        -3

        0.904

        Female

        1,093

        1,775

        20

        941

        1,799

        19

        1,172

        1,767

        27

        1,155

        1,736

        24

        -15

        0.290

        White, non-Hispanic

        1,280

        1,799

        18

        1,136

        1,771

        17

        1,134

        1,752

        17

        1,139

        1,738

        25

        -21

        0.012**

        Black, non-Hispanic

        334

        1,671

        29

        428

        1,689

        30

        504

        1,726

        32

        471

        1,697

        34

        12

        0.354

        Mexican-American

        399

        1,637

        45

        275

        1,567

        47

        347

        1,657

        42

        410

        1,631

        31

        4

        0.809

        * Sodium intake density was calculated as sodium intake divided by daily calories. Mean usual sodium intake density was estimated using PC-SIDE software (Department of Statistics, Iowa State University) with jackknife replicate weights and adjusted for the day of the week of the recall, age (years), sex, and race/ethnicity. Persons missing first-day recall data were excluded.

        Other racial/ethnic groups were not included. The sum of the sample size of non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and Mexican-American is not equal to the total sample size.

        § Sample sizes are unweighted.

        Mean change in sodium density per 2-year cycle (mg/1,000 kcal) estimated from a linear regression model with the usual mean sodium density for each 2-year phase weighted by the inverse of the variance.

        ** p<0.05, when mean usual sodium intake density was examined by using linear regression model.



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